Later Vedic Period (1000 BC - 600 BC)
Geographical Area
- Northern India (Aryavarta)
- Aryan moved towards Ganga - Yamuna doab place where two river meet
- Center of Culture shifted from Saraswati to Ganga (Madhya desa)
- Mention rivers - Narmada , Sadanira (Modern Gandak) , Chambal etc
- Expansion of people toward the East is indicated in a legend of Shatapatha Brahamana - Vidgha Mathava migrate from Saraswati region , crossed Sadanira to Videha (Modern Tirhut)
- Emergence of Janapadas - Kuru (combination of Purus & Bharatas) ; Panchala (combination of Turvasha & Krivis) and Kashi
- In Vedic Literature mention - Vindhya Mountain (Southern Mountain)
- Territorial division - Aryavarta (Northern India) ; Madhya desa (Central India) and Dakhinapath (Southern India)
Polity
- Large & Strong Kingdom
- Taittariya Brahmana - The theory of the divine origin of kingship
Purohita came into existence, these were :
- Bhagadudha - Collector of taxes
- Suta/Sarathi - the Royal herald or Charioteer
- Khasttri - Chamberlain
- Akshavapa - Courier
- Military Officials - Senani (the general) & Gramani (the head of the Village)
Regular system of provincial government :
- Sthapati - duty of administrating
- Satapati - a group of 100 Village
- Adhikrita - Village Official
- Ugras - Police Official (Mention in Upanishads)
- Sabha & Samiti - Popular control over the affairs of the kingdom
- Vidatha - God completely disappeared by now
- Judiciary - The king played a great role in administrating criminal law
Society
Yajnas - Society was divided into four group (Brahmana , Kshatriyas , Vaishyas & Shudras)
- Brahmanas (Priest) - complicated ceremonial leading to the emergence of learned men (Aryan)
- Kshatriyas (Kings/Rulers, Warriors) - Aryan expanded to the east and south group of people emerged to conquer territories and administer them
- Vaishyas (Merchants , Craftsman, Landowners, Skilled Workers) - Remaining Aryan formed a separate class
- Shudras (Form worker, unskilled worker, servants) - Non Aryan formed forth class
- Institution of Gotra - the clan appeared in later Vedic Period
- The higher castes could marry with the lower ones, but marriage with Shudras was not permitted
- Four Ashramas (the Stages of Life) - Brahmacharya, Grihastha, Vanprastha & Sanyasa (found in Jabala Upanishads)
- Ashrama System was formed to attain four Purusharthas - Dharma, Artha, Kama & Moksha
- Aitareya Brahamanas - Status of Women declined (daughter is the sources of misery but a son is the protector of Family)
- Maitrayani Samhita - Three evils of human (Liquor, Women, Dice)
- Monogamy (Ideal) - a man having one wife
- Polygamy (frequent) - a man having more than one wife
- Yajnavalkya-Gargi dialogue (Brihadaranyaka Upanishads) - Indicates that some women had got higher education
Types of Hindu Marriage (Vivaha) :
- Brahma Vivaha - Giving the girl to a man with dowry
- Daiva Vivaha - Giving the girl to the priest himself in lieu of his fees
- Arsha Vivaha - Giving the girl to man after accepting a bride price
- Prajapatya Vivaha - Giving the girl to a man without demanding a bride price
- Gandharva Vivaha - Love Marriage
- Asura Vivaha - Marriage with the a purchased girl
- Rakshasa Vivaha - Marriage with the daughter of a defeated King or with a kidnapped girl
- Paishacha Vivaha - Marriage to a girl after seducing or raping her
- Anuloma Vivaha - Marriage between a bridegroom from an upper caste and a bride from a lower caste
- Pratiloma Vivaha - Marriage between a bridegroom from an lower caste and a bride from a upper caste
Samskaras - There are 16 types of samskara
- Garbhadhana
- Pumsavana
- Simantonnayan
- Jatakarma
- Namakaran
- Nishkramana
- Annaprashana
- Chudakarma
- Karnachhedana
- Vidyarmbha
- Upanayana
- Vedarambha
- Samavaratana
- Vivaha
- Vanprastha
- Antyesti
Religion
- Indra & Agni - Lost their importance
- Divinity was Vishnu (Patron god of Aryans)
- Prajapati (Brahma) - Supreme God (creator of the Universe)
- Rudra (Shiva, Mahesha) - God of Animals
- Pushana - Protected cattle in the early Vedic Period now became the god of Shudras
- Brihadaranyaka Upanishads - first the work to give Doctrine of transmigration (Punarjanama, Samsarachakra) & deeds (Karma)
In the later Vedas and Brahamanas sacrifice (Yajnas) came into prominence :
There are two varieties of sacrifices -
- Laghuyajnas (Simple / Private Sacrifice) : Performed by householder e.g. Pancha Mahayajna, Agnihotra, Darsha Yajna (on Amavasya - on the last day of the dark fortnight), Purnamasa Yajna (on Purnima - on the day of full moon)
- Mahayajnas (Grand/Royal Sacrifice) : Sacrifices that could only be undertaken by an aristocratic and wealthy man and the king
- Rajasuya Yajna - Royal consecration
- Vajapeya Yajna - Drink of Strength
- Asvamedha Yajna - Horse sacrifice
- Agnishtoma Yajna - Sacrifice of Animal dedicated to Agni
Economy
- Land had now became more valuable than cows
- Agriculture began to replace rearing of cattle
- Manure was known
- Rice, Barley, Beans, Sesame and Wheat were cultivated
- Tin, Silver and Iron was made apart from gold and Ayas (either copper or iron) in the Rig Veda
- PGW (Painted Grey Ware) Culture : 1100 BC - 600 BC
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